Because
of this move away from the top-down model of Second Wave feminism, Third Wave
feminism finds it difficult to discuss sexism, since sexism as a concept is
based on the idea that discrimination against women is systematic and that
sexism is imposed on women by those in positions of power, is ingrained in
social structures and works to the benefit of all men. Sexism as a topic of
analysis is distinctly unfashionable at the moment and has a slightly anachronistic
feel to it. Sexist language was broadly defined within 2nd
wave feminism as the use of statements which 'create, constitute, promote
or exploit an unfair or irrelevant distinction between the sexes', (Vetterling-Braggin, 1981: 3). Thus, studies
of sexism concerned themselves with the use of the so-called generic pronoun
`he' to refer to both males and females, and the use of the form `lady' or
`female' with generic nouns such as `doctor' when they are used to refer to
females. This type of analysis showed
that there was a systematic tendency within English and other languages to
assume that males were the norm and to associate women with trivial, sexualised
or non-serious topics (Cameron, 1998; Pauwels, 1998).
[13]
Many Feminist analysts of sexist language argued
that this type of language use should be reformed to reflect the changes in
women's position in society. However,
some feminists questioned this determinist position and suggested that perhaps
sexist language did not itself determine women's oppression; reform of the
language alone would not alter the way that women were treated.
[14]
Feminists drawing on social constructionism
argued that changes in women's position would lead to a change in the way
language was used. Neither of these
views is accurate, as it is clear there is a complex dialectic process going on in language, whereby
language items both affirm and contest the status quo, and changes in social
structures necessitate the development of new vocabulary and forms of expression.
Language is a site where challenges to the status quo through challenges to
sexism can take place and these changes at the local level may lead to changes
in the overall meanings of words and also wider changes at a societal level.
I
would like now to discuss the ways in which analysing sexism within Third
Wave feminism has been made more complex,
and to analyse the reasons that
sexism has become difficult to discuss. One
of the major factors in the current difficulty in discussing sexism is the
result of very effective feminist campaigns over language: in the public sphere,
sexism is often viewed by employers and employees to be incompatible with
equal opportunities in the workplace. Publishing houses, trades unions, public
corporations, public service providers, universities and so on, have issued
guidelines on appropriate language.
[15]
Feminists have developed alternative terms,
so that instead of `chairman; 'chair', can be used. Instead of referring to `air hostess' which
some find demeaning, one can use 'flight
attendant', and so on. Cameron has
argued that in fact by challenging the use of sexist words, 'the radicals
have effectively politicised all the terms, so that, in any interaction, the
choice of certain words will announce your political stance in relation to
women' (Cameron, 1994b: 31).
[16]
It is important that these feminist campaigns
have led to language policies being adopted by institutions. Whilst many of the policies on sexism and racism
seem to have largely fallen into disuse, the fact that there is institutional
support changes the status of an individual's complaint about language use
(Pauwels, 1998). But the very success
of the campaigns to change the language used at work has meant that certain
forms of sexism rather than being seen as neutral forms have become marked
and associated with conservatism- sexism
thus seems to have been driven underground.
Therefore, rather than sexism being overt as in the past, sexism has
become much more indirect.
[17]